Gandhi - Revision history

PeterDuffy: Marked this version for translation

2026-03-19T18:30:23Z

Marked this version for translation

PeterDuffy at 18:29, 19 March 2026

2026-03-19T18:29:53Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:29, 19 March 2026
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	[[File:820px-Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg\|thumb\|Studio photograph of Mohandas K. Gandhi, London, 1931]]		<languages />
	[[File:Gandhi and Laxmidas 2.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Gandhi and his brother Laxmidas]]		[[File:820px-Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg\|thumb\|<translate>Studio photograph of Mohandas K. Gandhi, London, 1931</translate>]]
			[[File:Gandhi and Laxmidas 2.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|<translate>Gandhi and his brother Laxmidas</translate>]]

			<translate>
	'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' (1869–1948) was a Hindu nationalist and spiritual leader. He was called Mahatma (“great-souled”) and regarded as the father of independent India.		'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' (1869–1948) was a Hindu nationalist and spiritual leader. He was called Mahatma (“great-souled”) and regarded as the father of independent India.

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	Yet the only report that we have of his faults is by his own pen—a pen that treats with utmost severity the slightest transgressions. Gandhi made sure that we would all know his sins. And in knowing them, that we would be unafraid to look at our own and thereby arrest the temptation of making him or ourselves into gods.		Yet the only report that we have of his faults is by his own pen—a pen that treats with utmost severity the slightest transgressions. Gandhi made sure that we would all know his sins. And in knowing them, that we would be unafraid to look at our own and thereby arrest the temptation of making him or ourselves into gods.
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	[[File:Gandhi and Kasturbhai 1902.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi and his wife Kasturbai (1902)]]		[[File:Gandhi and Kasturbhai 1902.jpg\|thumb\|<translate>Gandhi and his wife, Kasturbai (1902)</translate>]]

			<translate>
	== Marriage ==		== Marriage ==

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	Since his “curriculum of study was easy, barristers being humorously known as ‘dinner barristers’,”<ref>Ibid., p. 71.</ref> he had plenty of spare time. He studied the classics and became fluent in English and Latin. And in the midst of these secular studies, religion unexpectedly reentered his life.		Since his “curriculum of study was easy, barristers being humorously known as ‘dinner barristers’,”<ref>Ibid., p. 71.</ref> he had plenty of spare time. He studied the classics and became fluent in English and Latin. And in the midst of these secular studies, religion unexpectedly reentered his life.
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	[[File:Gandhi-1891.jpeg\|thumb\|upright\|Ghandi in London (1891)]]		[[File:Gandhi-1891.jpeg\|thumb\|upright\|<translate>Ghandi in London (1891)</translate>]]

			<translate>
	In 1889, a friend convinced him to read the ''Bhagavad-gita'', the sacred book of Hinduism, which he had never examined before. It made a lasting impact. “The book struck me as one of priceless worth. The impression has ever since been growing on me with the result that I regard it today as the book ''par excellence'' for the knowledge of Truth.”<ref>Ibid., p. 59.</ref>		In 1889, a friend convinced him to read the ''Bhagavad-gita'', the sacred book of Hinduism, which he had never examined before. It made a lasting impact. “The book struck me as one of priceless worth. The impression has ever since been growing on me with the result that I regard it today as the book ''par excellence'' for the knowledge of Truth.”<ref>Ibid., p. 59.</ref>

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	He experimented much with the correct food, exercise, rest, and various disciplines for the ''brahmachari'' (one who practices ''brahmacharya''), but in all of his life, he never once repined once he had taken his final vow. He also attributed the evolution of his philosophy of nonviolence to the fact that he had taken the ''brahmacharya'' vow.		He experimented much with the correct food, exercise, rest, and various disciplines for the ''brahmachari'' (one who practices ''brahmacharya''), but in all of his life, he never once repined once he had taken his final vow. He also attributed the evolution of his philosophy of nonviolence to the fact that he had taken the ''brahmacharya'' vow.
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	[[File:Gandhi Johannesburg 1905.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Gandhi in front of his law office, Johannesburg (1905)]]		[[File:Gandhi Johannesburg 1905.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|<translate>Gandhi in front of his law office, Johannesburg (1905)</translate>]]

			<translate>
	== Experiments with civil disobedience ==		== Experiments with civil disobedience ==

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	In July of 1914, their champion returned to India, leaving the schoolroom of South Africa where he had learned life’s most important lessons. Tempered in the fire of service, armed with the force of Truth, he was now ready for his calling, soon to be revealed in its full magnitude.		In July of 1914, their champion returned to India, leaving the schoolroom of South Africa where he had learned life’s most important lessons. Tempered in the fire of service, armed with the force of Truth, he was now ready for his calling, soon to be revealed in its full magnitude.
			</translate>

	[[File:Gandhi besant madras1921.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Gandhi with Annie Besant, President of the Theosophical Society, Madras (1921)]]		[[File:Gandhi besant madras1921.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|<translate>Gandhi with Annie Besant, President of the Theosophical Society, Madras (1921)</translate>]]

			<translate>
	== Social reform in India ==		== Social reform in India ==

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	“I had committed a grave error,” Gandhi wrote, “in calling upon the people ... to launch upon civil disobedience prematurely, as it now seemed to me.”<ref>Ibid., p. 424.</ref> Taking the blame for his “Himalayan miscalculation,” Gandhi embarked upon a five-day fast. From 1924–27, he held aloof from political activity and devoted himself to a constructive program of Hindu-Muslim amity, removal of untouchability, and popularization of ''khadi''.		“I had committed a grave error,” Gandhi wrote, “in calling upon the people ... to launch upon civil disobedience prematurely, as it now seemed to me.”<ref>Ibid., p. 424.</ref> Taking the blame for his “Himalayan miscalculation,” Gandhi embarked upon a five-day fast. From 1924–27, he held aloof from political activity and devoted himself to a constructive program of Hindu-Muslim amity, removal of untouchability, and popularization of ''khadi''.
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	[[File:Gandhi Salt March.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi during the Salt March (1930)]]		[[File:Gandhi Salt March.jpg\|thumb\|<translate>Gandhi during the Salt March (1930)</translate>]]

			<translate>
	After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”<ref>''Young India'', May 25, 1921.</ref>		After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”<ref>''Young India'', May 25, 1921.</ref>

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	<blockquote>With each fast, each boycott, and each imprisonment (by a British Raj which feared to leave him free, feared even more that he would die on their hands and enrage all India), Gandhi came closer to his goal of a free India. With the same weapons he got in some blows at his favorite social evils—untouchability, liquor, landlord extortions, child marriages, the low status of women.</blockquote>		<blockquote>With each fast, each boycott, and each imprisonment (by a British Raj which feared to leave him free, feared even more that he would die on their hands and enrage all India), Gandhi came closer to his goal of a free India. With the same weapons he got in some blows at his favorite social evils—untouchability, liquor, landlord extortions, child marriages, the low status of women.</blockquote>
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	[[File:Gandhi Jinnah 1944.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi and Jinnah, Bombay (September 1944)]]		[[File:Gandhi Jinnah 1944.jpg\|thumb\|<translate>Gandhi and Jinnah, Bombay (September 1944)</translate>]]

			<translate>
	It was much easier, however, for the population of India to accept a campaign for freedom than to accept an overturning of their ancient traditions. Consequently, as World War II and what ''Time'' called this “most colossal experiment in world history” drew to a close, fewer and fewer were willing to institute his social reforms. From 1946–47, the British government, represented by Lord Mountbatten, the Indian National Congress, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and advised by Mohandas Gandhi, and the All-India Muslim League, headed by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, negotiated to find the best possible means for ''Swaraj''.		It was much easier, however, for the population of India to accept a campaign for freedom than to accept an overturning of their ancient traditions. Consequently, as World War II and what ''Time'' called this “most colossal experiment in world history” drew to a close, fewer and fewer were willing to institute his social reforms. From 1946–47, the British government, represented by Lord Mountbatten, the Indian National Congress, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and advised by Mohandas Gandhi, and the All-India Muslim League, headed by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, negotiated to find the best possible means for ''Swaraj''.

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	Perhaps some would cite as his greatest fault his inability to reconcile himself to the belief that anyone could be the relentless embodiment of evil—even to the death of his dreams and his dharma in that frail form. Thus he did not take strong measures against Jinnah. His system had no immediate answer for such a confrontation with the enemy of his life’s mission—except a recess until the next round in the next life when karma as the Law of Love—outplayed in the effects set in motion by his cause—would afford him another opportunity—this time to love and win.		Perhaps some would cite as his greatest fault his inability to reconcile himself to the belief that anyone could be the relentless embodiment of evil—even to the death of his dreams and his dharma in that frail form. Thus he did not take strong measures against Jinnah. His system had no immediate answer for such a confrontation with the enemy of his life’s mission—except a recess until the next round in the next life when karma as the Law of Love—outplayed in the effects set in motion by his cause—would afford him another opportunity—this time to love and win.
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	[[File:Gandhi and Nehru in 1946.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi with Jawaharlal Nehru at the All India Congress, Bombay, 1946. Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India the following year.]]		[[File:Gandhi and Nehru in 1946.jpg\|thumb\|<translate>Gandhi with Jawaharlal Nehru at the All India Congress, Bombay, 1946. Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India the following year.</translate>]]

			<translate>
	== Political philosophy ==		== Political philosophy ==

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	The spinning wheel permeated one of his few sketches of the future “Gandhian” society in which he described a highly decentralized government of limited powers, where “every village will be a republic or ''panchayat'' having full powers.”<ref>Ibid.</ref>		The spinning wheel permeated one of his few sketches of the future “Gandhian” society in which he described a highly decentralized government of limited powers, where “every village will be a republic or ''panchayat'' having full powers.”<ref>Ibid.</ref>
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	[[File:Gandhi spinning.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi with his spinning wheel (late 1940s)]]		[[File:Gandhi spinning.jpg\|thumb\|<translate>Gandhi with his spinning wheel (late 1940s)</translate>]]

			<translate>
	He described a self-sufficient society that could maintain its moral priorities and provide a rich enough political and economic life to resist penetration by malignant outside forces. He wrote:		He described a self-sufficient society that could maintain its moral priorities and provide a rich enough political and economic life to resist penetration by malignant outside forces. He wrote:

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	''Heart'' magazine, Autumn 1983.		''Heart'' magazine, Autumn 1983.
			</translate>
	<references />		<references />

PeterDuffy at 04:00, 13 August 2023

2023-08-13T04:00:52Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 04:00, 13 August 2023
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	Possibly anticipating such criticism, Gandhi wrote:		Possibly anticipating such criticism, Gandhi wrote:

	<blockquote>When one considers the painful contrast between the happy ending of the Satyagraha struggle and the present condition of Indians in South Africa, one feels for a moment as if all this suffering had gone for nothing, or is inclined to question the efficacy of Satyagraha as a solvent of the problems of mankind. But let us consider this point for a little while.~~</blockquote>~~		<blockquote>
			When one considers the painful contrast between the happy ending of the Satyagraha struggle and the present condition of Indians in South Africa, one feels for a moment as if all this suffering had gone for nothing, or is inclined to question the efficacy of Satyagraha as a solvent of the problems of mankind. But let us consider this point for a little while.

	~~<blockquote>~~There is a law of nature that a thing can be retained by the same means by which it has been acquired. A thing acquired by violence can be retained by violence alone, while one acquired by truth can be retained by truth alone. The Indians in South Africa, therefore, can ensure their safety today if they can wield the weapon of Satyagraha. There are no such miraculous properties in Satyagraha that a thing acquired by truth could be retained even if truth were given up.<ref>Ibid., p. 369.</ref></blockquote>		There is a law of nature that a thing can be retained by the same means by which it has been acquired. A thing acquired by violence can be retained by violence alone, while one acquired by truth can be retained by truth alone. The Indians in South Africa, therefore, can ensure their safety today if they can wield the weapon of Satyagraha. There are no such miraculous properties in Satyagraha that a thing acquired by truth could be retained even if truth were given up.<ref>Ibid., p. 369.</ref>
			</blockquote>

	It seems that the fault is not in the weapon, but rather in the warriors.		It seems that the fault is not in the weapon, but rather in the warriors.
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	The struggle continued and, faced with a seemingly irreconcilable situation, Gandhi’s inner voice revealed to him another powerful strategic weapon to be used in the practice of ''Satyagraha''. It came to him as he was assisting some mill strikers in Ahmedabad. They began to get tired of their cause and were ready to capitulate.		The struggle continued and, faced with a seemingly irreconcilable situation, Gandhi’s inner voice revealed to him another powerful strategic weapon to be used in the practice of ''Satyagraha''. It came to him as he was assisting some mill strikers in Ahmedabad. They began to get tired of their cause and were ready to capitulate.

	<blockquote>One morning ... unbidden and all by themselves the words came to my lips: “Unless the strikers rally,” I declared to the meeting, “and continue the strike till a settlement is reached, or till they leave the mills altogether I will not touch any food”...~~</blockquote>~~		<blockquote>
			One morning ... unbidden and all by themselves the words came to my lips: “Unless the strikers rally,” I declared to the meeting, “and continue the strike till a settlement is reached, or till they leave the mills altogether I will not touch any food”...

	~~<blockquote>~~The hearts of the mill-owners were touched, and they set about discovering some means for a settlement.<ref>''Experiments with Truth'', pp. 388, 390.</ref></blockquote>		The hearts of the mill-owners were touched, and they set about discovering some means for a settlement.<ref>''Experiments with Truth'', pp. 388, 390.</ref>
			</blockquote>

	The difference between Gandhi and some hunger strikers of recent years is that Gandhi was respected and loved by both sides of the dispute. Gandhi used fasting several times over the years, always as a last resort—once to stop the Indians from killing the British, and again to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. It always accomplished its end.		The difference between Gandhi and some hunger strikers of recent years is that Gandhi was respected and loved by both sides of the dispute. Gandhi used fasting several times over the years, always as a last resort—once to stop the Indians from killing the British, and again to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. It always accomplished its end.
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	He described a self-sufficient society that could maintain its moral priorities and provide a rich enough political and economic life to resist penetration by malignant outside forces. He wrote:		He described a self-sufficient society that could maintain its moral priorities and provide a rich enough political and economic life to resist penetration by malignant outside forces. He wrote:

	<blockquote>It follows, therefore, that every village has to be self-sustained and capable of managing its affairs even to the extent of defending itself against the whole world. It will be trained and prepared to perish in the attempt to defend itself against any onslaught from without. Thus, ultimately, it is the individual who is the unit....~~</blockquote>~~		<blockquote>
			It follows, therefore, that every village has to be self-sustained and capable of managing its affairs even to the extent of defending itself against the whole world. It will be trained and prepared to perish in the attempt to defend itself against any onslaught from without. Thus, ultimately, it is the individual who is the unit....

	~~<blockquote>~~In this structure composed of innumerable villages, there will be ever-widening, never-ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral units.<ref>Ibid., pp. 99–100.</ref></blockquote>		In this structure composed of innumerable villages, there will be ever-widening, never-ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral units.<ref>Ibid., pp. 99–100.</ref>
			</blockquote>

	Some rejected the metaphysical nature of his scheme. Gandhi anticipated his critics: “I may be taunted,” he wrote, “that this is all Utopian and, therefore, not worth a single thought.”<ref>Ibid., p. 100.</ref>		Some rejected the metaphysical nature of his scheme. Gandhi anticipated his critics: “I may be taunted,” he wrote, “that this is all Utopian and, therefore, not worth a single thought.”<ref>Ibid., p. 100.</ref>

Pduffy: link

2020-07-05T00:29:50Z

link

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:29, 5 July 2020
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	After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”<ref>''Young India'', May 25, 1921.</ref>		After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”<ref>''Young India'', May 25, 1921.</ref>

	People of all castes flocked to him, worshiping their Mahatma—yet Gandhi had a horror of idolatry. Once he received a report that a temple had been constructed in his honor. He became incensed and demanded that the idol be removed and the building converted to a spinning center.		People of all castes flocked to him, worshiping their Mahatma—yet Gandhi had a horror of [[idolatry]]. Once he received a report that a temple had been constructed in his honor. He became incensed and demanded that the idol be removed and the building converted to a spinning center.

	From March 12 to April 6, 1930, Gandhi led seventy-eight disciples on a 200-mile march to the sea at Dandi to make salt in symbolic protest of British monopoly of salt manufacturing. The populace had learned their lessons and were now model ''Satyagrahis'', delighted at this and every other new means of putting it into action.		From March 12 to April 6, 1930, Gandhi led seventy-eight disciples on a 200-mile march to the sea at Dandi to make salt in symbolic protest of British monopoly of salt manufacturing. The populace had learned their lessons and were now model ''Satyagrahis'', delighted at this and every other new means of putting it into action.

Pduffy: link

2020-06-14T17:17:55Z

link

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:17, 14 June 2020
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	<blockquote>It was the New Testament which really awakened me to the rightness and value of passive resistance. When I read in the Sermon on the Mount such passages as “Resist not him that is evil but whosoever smiteth thee on thy right cheek turn to him the other also.”... I was simply overjoyed, and found my own opinion confirmed where I least expected it.<ref>''Mahatma Gandhi At Work'', p. 374.</ref></blockquote>		<blockquote>It was the New Testament which really awakened me to the rightness and value of passive resistance. When I read in the Sermon on the Mount such passages as “Resist not him that is evil but whosoever smiteth thee on thy right cheek turn to him the other also.”... I was simply overjoyed, and found my own opinion confirmed where I least expected it.<ref>''Mahatma Gandhi At Work'', p. 374.</ref></blockquote>

	But Gandhi did away with the term passive resistance and searched for an Indian equivalent that would better translate Christ’s example to his people. “Satya (Truth) implies Love: and Agraha (Firmness) serves as a synonym for Force. So I began to call the Indian movement ~~‘Satyagraha~~.’ By this I meant the Force which is born of Truth and Love.”<ref>Ibid., p. 150.</ref>		But Gandhi did away with the term passive resistance and searched for an Indian equivalent that would better translate Christ’s example to his people. “Satya (Truth) implies Love: and Agraha (Firmness) serves as a synonym for Force. So I began to call the Indian movement ‘[[Satyagraha]].’ By this I meant the Force which is born of Truth and Love.”<ref>Ibid., p. 150.</ref>

	Gandhi wrote:		Gandhi wrote:

Pduffy at 16:25, 14 June 2020

2020-06-14T16:25:11Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:25, 14 June 2020
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	[[File:820px-Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg\|thumb\|Studio photograph of Mohandas K. Gandhi, London, 1931]]		[[File:820px-Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg\|thumb\|Studio photograph of Mohandas K. Gandhi, London, 1931]]
	[[File:Gandhi and Laxmidas 2.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi and his brother Laxmidas]]		[[File:Gandhi and Laxmidas 2.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Gandhi and his brother Laxmidas]]

	'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' (1869–1948) was a Hindu nationalist and spiritual leader. He was called Mahatma (“great-souled”) and regarded as the father of independent India.		'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' (1869–1948) was a Hindu nationalist and spiritual leader. He was called Mahatma (“great-souled”) and regarded as the father of independent India.

Pduffy: source references

2020-06-14T16:24:36Z

source references

Pduffy: /* Brahmacharya vow */

2020-06-14T15:29:03Z

Brahmacharya vow

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:29, 14 June 2020
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	Whether following the ideal of the Eastern ascetic or the inner necessity for sacrifice to achieve his goals, once convinced of his course of action Gandhi was determined to overcome. So, with the agreement of Kasturbai, he twice attempted to become celibate. But he failed both times. Then in 1906, at the age of thirty-seven, he took a vow of complete renunciation, because		Whether following the ideal of the Eastern ascetic or the inner necessity for sacrifice to achieve his goals, once convinced of his course of action Gandhi was determined to overcome. So, with the agreement of Kasturbai, he twice attempted to become celibate. But he failed both times. Then in 1906, at the age of thirty-seven, he took a vow of complete renunciation, because

	<blockquote>I realized that a vow, far from closing the door to real freedom, opened it.... I clearly saw that one aspiring to serve humanity with his whole soul could not do without it.... In a word, I could not live both after the flesh and the spirit.”<ref>Ibid., pp. 180–81, 281.</ref>		<blockquote>I realized that a vow, far from closing the door to real freedom, opened it.... I clearly saw that one aspiring to serve humanity with his whole soul could not do without it.... In a word, I could not live both after the flesh and the spirit.”<ref>Ibid., pp. 180–81, 281.</ref></blockquote>

	Gandhi never broke his vow. Years later, he realized that ''brahmacharya'' was impossible to attain by mere human effort. It was only by acknowledging the power of God within that he could control his senses.		Gandhi never broke his vow. Years later, he realized that ''brahmacharya'' was impossible to attain by mere human effort. It was only by acknowledging the power of God within that he could control his senses.

Pduffy: added source references

2020-06-14T15:28:05Z

added source references

Show changes

Pduffy at 07:02, 14 June 2020

2020-06-14T07:02:44Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:02, 14 June 2020
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			[[File:820px-Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg\|thumb\|Studio photograph of Mohandas K. Gandhi, London, 1931]]
	[[File:Gandhi and Laxmidas 2.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi and his brother Laxmidas]]		[[File:Gandhi and Laxmidas 2.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi and his brother Laxmidas]]

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	== Disillusionment with religion ==		== Disillusionment with religion ==

	His parents’ example of devotion notwithstanding, Mohan became disillusioned with religion at an early age. He saw the caste problems, the dominant and rapacious Hindu priests, the oppression of women, and the fact that one-fifth of ~~India--the untouchables--were~~ treated as less than human, and he knew that there must be a better way. He began to “incline somewhat towards atheism.”		His parents’ example of devotion notwithstanding, Mohan became disillusioned with religion at an early age. He saw the caste problems, the dominant and rapacious Hindu priests, the oppression of women, and the fact that one-fifth of India—the untouchables—were treated as less than human, and he knew that there must be a better way. He began to “incline somewhat towards atheism.”

	But far from “turning him off” to religion, Mohandas’ anti-religious sentiments quickened his interest and he listened attentively to his father’s frequent discussions with Muslim and Parsi friends on the differences between their faiths and Hinduism, seeking meaning beyond tradition and ritual, selecting a bouquet of ideas appealing to his soul. At that time, he wrote, “one thing took deep root in me—the conviction that morality is the basis of things and that truth is the substance of all morality.”		But far from “turning him off” to religion, Mohandas’ anti-religious sentiments quickened his interest and he listened attentively to his father’s frequent discussions with Muslim and Parsi friends on the differences between their faiths and Hinduism, seeking meaning beyond tradition and ritual, selecting a bouquet of ideas appealing to his soul. At that time, he wrote, “one thing took deep root in me—the conviction that morality is the basis of things and that truth is the substance of all morality.”
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	Since his “curriculum of study was easy, barristers being humorously known as dinner barristers,” he had plenty of spare time. He studied the classics and became fluent in English and Latin. And in the midst of these secular studies, religion unexpectedly reentered his life.		Since his “curriculum of study was easy, barristers being humorously known as dinner barristers,” he had plenty of spare time. He studied the classics and became fluent in English and Latin. And in the midst of these secular studies, religion unexpectedly reentered his life.

			[[File:Gandhi-1891.jpeg\|thumb\|upright\|Ghandi in London (1891)]]

	In 1889, a friend convinced him to read the Bhagavad-gita, the sacred book of Hinduism, which he had never examined before. It made a lasting impact. “The book struck me as one of priceless worth. The impression has ever since been growing on me with the result that I regard it today as the book par excellence for the knowledge of Truth.”		In 1889, a friend convinced him to read the Bhagavad-gita, the sacred book of Hinduism, which he had never examined before. It made a lasting impact. “The book struck me as one of priceless worth. The impression has ever since been growing on me with the result that I regard it today as the book par excellence for the knowledge of Truth.”
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	He experimented much with the correct food, exercise, rest, and various disciplines for the ''brahmachari'' (one who practices ''brahmacharya''), but in all of his life, he never once repined once he had taken his final vow. He also attributed the evolution of his philosophy of nonviolence to the fact that he had taken the brahmacharya vow.		He experimented much with the correct food, exercise, rest, and various disciplines for the ''brahmachari'' (one who practices ''brahmacharya''), but in all of his life, he never once repined once he had taken his final vow. He also attributed the evolution of his philosophy of nonviolence to the fact that he had taken the brahmacharya vow.

			[[File:Gandhi Johannesburg 1905.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Gandhi in front of his law office, Johannesburg (1905)]]

	== Experiments with civil disobedience ==		== Experiments with civil disobedience ==
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	In July of 1914, their champion returned to India, leaving the schoolroom of South Africa where he had learned life’s most important lessons. Tempered in the fire of service, armed with the force of Truth, he was now ready for his calling, soon to be revealed in its full magnitude.		In July of 1914, their champion returned to India, leaving the schoolroom of South Africa where he had learned life’s most important lessons. Tempered in the fire of service, armed with the force of Truth, he was now ready for his calling, soon to be revealed in its full magnitude.

			[[File:Gandhi besant madras1921.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Gandhi with Annie Besant, President of the Theosophical Society, Madras (1921)]]

	== Social reform in India ==		== Social reform in India ==
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	<blockquote>I agreed to take goat’s milk. The will to live proved stronger than the devotion to truth.... But I cannot yet free myself from that subtlest of temptations, the desire to serve, which still holds me.</blockquote>		<blockquote>I agreed to take goat’s milk. The will to live proved stronger than the devotion to truth.... But I cannot yet free myself from that subtlest of temptations, the desire to serve, which still holds me.</blockquote>

	~~[[File:820px-Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg\|thumb\|Studio photograph of Mohandas K. Gandhi, London, 1931]]~~

	== The struggle for Indian independence ==		== The struggle for Indian independence ==
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	After a few successful trials of ''Satyagraha'', he issued a call for widespread civil disobedience for April 18, 1919. But the nation could not control itself. Nonviolence quickly deteriorated into riots when British mounted police accosted the crowds of passive demonstrators. The Indians retaliated brutally, igniting widespread atrocities and massacres on both sides, especially in the northern province of the Punjab.		After a few successful trials of ''Satyagraha'', he issued a call for widespread civil disobedience for April 18, 1919. But the nation could not control itself. Nonviolence quickly deteriorated into riots when British mounted police accosted the crowds of passive demonstrators. The Indians retaliated brutally, igniting widespread atrocities and massacres on both sides, especially in the northern province of the Punjab.

	“I had committed a grave error,” Gandhi wrote, “in calling upon the people ... to launch upon civil disobedience prematurely, as it now seemed to me.” Taking the blame for his “Himalayan miscalculation,” Gandhi embarked upon a five-day fast. From 1924–27, he held aloof from political activity and devoted himself to a constructive program of Hindu-Muslim amity, removal of untouchability, and popularization of ''khadi''.		“I had committed a grave error,” Gandhi wrote, “in calling upon the people ... to launch upon civil disobedience prematurely, as it now seemed to me.” Taking the blame for his “Himalayan miscalculation,” Gandhi embarked upon a five-day fast. From 1924–27, he held aloof from political activity and devoted himself to a constructive program of Hindu-Muslim amity, removal of untouchability, and popularization of ''khadi''.

			[[File:Gandhi Salt March.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi during the Salt March (1930)]]

	After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”		After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”
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	<blockquote>With each fast, each boycott, and each imprisonment (by a British Raj which feared to leave him free, feared even more that he would die on their hands and enrage all India), Gandhi came closer to his goal of a free India. With the same weapons he got in some blows at his favorite social evils—untouchability, liquor, landlord extortions, child marriages, the low status of women.</blockquote>		<blockquote>With each fast, each boycott, and each imprisonment (by a British Raj which feared to leave him free, feared even more that he would die on their hands and enrage all India), Gandhi came closer to his goal of a free India. With the same weapons he got in some blows at his favorite social evils—untouchability, liquor, landlord extortions, child marriages, the low status of women.</blockquote>

			[[File:Gandhi Jinnah 1944.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi and Jinnah, Bombay (September 1944)]]

	It was much easier, however, for the population of India to accept a campaign for freedom than to accept an overturning of their ancient traditions. Consequently, as World War II and what ''Time'' called this “most colossal experiment in world history” drew to a close, fewer and fewer were willing to institute his social reforms. From 1946–47, the British government, represented by Lord Mountbatten, the Indian National Congress, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and advised by Mohandas Gandhi, and the All-India Muslim League, headed by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, negotiated to find the best possible means for ''Swaraj''.		It was much easier, however, for the population of India to accept a campaign for freedom than to accept an overturning of their ancient traditions. Consequently, as World War II and what ''Time'' called this “most colossal experiment in world history” drew to a close, fewer and fewer were willing to institute his social reforms. From 1946–47, the British government, represented by Lord Mountbatten, the Indian National Congress, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and advised by Mohandas Gandhi, and the All-India Muslim League, headed by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, negotiated to find the best possible means for ''Swaraj''.
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	Perhaps some would cite as his greatest fault his inability to reconcile himself to the belief that anyone could be the relentless embodiment of evil—even to the death of his dreams and his dharma in that frail form. Thus he did not take strong measures against Jinnah. His system had no immediate answer for such a confrontation with the enemy of his life’s mission—except a recess until the next round in the next life when karma as the Law of Love—outplayed in the effects set in motion by his cause—would afford him another opportunity—this time to love and win.		Perhaps some would cite as his greatest fault his inability to reconcile himself to the belief that anyone could be the relentless embodiment of evil—even to the death of his dreams and his dharma in that frail form. Thus he did not take strong measures against Jinnah. His system had no immediate answer for such a confrontation with the enemy of his life’s mission—except a recess until the next round in the next life when karma as the Law of Love—outplayed in the effects set in motion by his cause—would afford him another opportunity—this time to love and win.

			[[File:Gandhi and Nehru in 1946.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi with Jawaharlal Nehru at the All India Congress, Bombay, 1946. Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India the following year.]]

	== Political philosophy ==		== Political philosophy ==

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:24, 14 June 2020
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	He soon gained some degree of success and the reputation as the most honest lawyer in town. But that was far from satisfying him. "The problem of further simplifying my life and of doing some concrete act of service to my fellow-men [was] constantly agitating me.”<ref>Ibid., p. 97.</ref>		He soon gained some degree of success and the reputation as the most honest lawyer in town. But that was far from satisfying him. "The problem of further simplifying my life and of doing some concrete act of service to my fellow-men [was] constantly agitating me.”<ref>Ibid., p. 97.</ref>

	Soon Gandhi’s religious striving reached its peak. Sampling creeds and doctrines of both East and West, he read avidly: the Koran, ''The New Interpretation of the Bible,'' and was “overwhelmed” by Tolstoy’s ''The Kingdom of God is Within You''. Still, he wrote, “I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such.”<ref>'Experiments with Truth'', p. 119.</ref>		Soon Gandhi’s religious striving reached its peak. Sampling creeds and doctrines of both East and West, he read avidly: the Koran, ''The New Interpretation of the Bible,'' and was “overwhelmed” by Tolstoy’s ''The Kingdom of God is Within You''. Still, he wrote, “I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such.”<ref>''Experiments with Truth'', p. 119.</ref>

	In 1896, Gandhi returned to India for six months to fetch his wife and family. Once settled in South Africa, “I found myself entirely absorbed in the service of the community. The reason behind it was my desire for self-realization. I had made the religion of service my own.”<ref>Ibid., p. 139.</ref> He even nursed a leper with his own hands.		In 1896, Gandhi returned to India for six months to fetch his wife and family. Once settled in South Africa, “I found myself entirely absorbed in the service of the community. The reason behind it was my desire for self-realization. I had made the religion of service my own.”<ref>Ibid., p. 139.</ref> He even nursed a leper with his own hands.
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	[[File:Gandhi Salt March.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi during the Salt March (1930)]]		[[File:Gandhi Salt March.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi during the Salt March (1930)]]

	After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”		After 1927, he again began campaigning for ''Swaraj''—alternating between jail, political activity, protest through fasting, and ashram life. If Gandhi campaigned wholeheartedly for ''Swaraj'', then he campaigned “wholesouledly” for the eradication of untouchability. “Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjugation and deliberately deny to them the fruits of national culture.”<ref>''Young India'', May 25, 1921.</ref>

	People of all castes flocked to him, worshiping their Mahatma—yet Gandhi had a horror of idolatry. Once he received a report that a temple had been constructed in his honor. He became incensed and demanded that the idol be removed and the building converted to a spinning center.		People of all castes flocked to him, worshiping their Mahatma—yet Gandhi had a horror of idolatry. Once he received a report that a temple had been constructed in his honor. He became incensed and demanded that the idol be removed and the building converted to a spinning center.
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	The subsequent mass riots between Hindu and Muslim, interrupted momentarily by Gandhi’s last fast, were among the most sanguinary in history and seemed to be the ultimate defeat of ''Satyagraha'' and thus of Gandhi. So when, on January 30, 1948, Gandhi was struck down by a Hindu assassin’s bullet, it was seen as the culmination of his failure.		The subsequent mass riots between Hindu and Muslim, interrupted momentarily by Gandhi’s last fast, were among the most sanguinary in history and seemed to be the ultimate defeat of ''Satyagraha'' and thus of Gandhi. So when, on January 30, 1948, Gandhi was struck down by a Hindu assassin’s bullet, it was seen as the culmination of his failure.

	~~== The problem of evil ==~~

	Perhaps some would cite as his greatest fault his inability to reconcile himself to the belief that anyone could be the relentless embodiment of evil—even to the death of his dreams and his dharma in that frail form. Thus he did not take strong measures against Jinnah. His system had no immediate answer for such a confrontation with the enemy of his life’s mission—except a recess until the next round in the next life when karma as the Law of Love—outplayed in the effects set in motion by his cause—would afford him another opportunity—this time to love and win.		Perhaps some would cite as his greatest fault his inability to reconcile himself to the belief that anyone could be the relentless embodiment of evil—even to the death of his dreams and his dharma in that frail form. Thus he did not take strong measures against Jinnah. His system had no immediate answer for such a confrontation with the enemy of his life’s mission—except a recess until the next round in the next life when karma as the Law of Love—outplayed in the effects set in motion by his cause—would afford him another opportunity—this time to love and win.
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	This revelation did not prompt Gandhi to withdraw from a corrupt civilization to a Himalayan cave. On the contrary, it catapulted him into the very midst of his people. In fact, his career as a politician was born out of a love of God—the God who walked and worked the earth in the hearts of His people. Gandhi wrote:		This revelation did not prompt Gandhi to withdraw from a corrupt civilization to a Himalayan cave. On the contrary, it catapulted him into the very midst of his people. In fact, his career as a politician was born out of a love of God—the God who walked and worked the earth in the hearts of His people. Gandhi wrote:

	<blockquote>Man’s ultimate aim is the realization of God, and all his activities, social, political, religious, have to be guided by the ultimate aim of the vision of God. The immediate service of all human beings becomes a necessary part of the endeavour simply because the only way to find God is to see Him in His creation and be one with it. This can only be done by service of all.</blockquote>		<blockquote>Man’s ultimate aim is the realization of God, and all his activities, social, political, religious, have to be guided by the ultimate aim of the vision of God. The immediate service of all human beings becomes a necessary part of the endeavour simply because the only way to find God is to see Him in His creation and be one with it. This can only be done by service of all.<ref>''Young India'', May 25, 1921.</ref></blockquote>

	The people, as he found them, were much in need of service. In 1910, it was not in vogue to condemn modern industrial civilization. Yet Gandhi’s critique was scathing—a “soulless system” which was violent, full of inequities, narcissistic and which made “bodily welfare the object of life.”		The people, as he found them, were much in need of service. In 1910, it was not in vogue to condemn modern industrial civilization. Yet Gandhi’s critique was scathing—a “soulless system” which was violent, full of inequities, narcissistic and which made “bodily welfare the object of life.”<ref>Mahatma Gandhi, Louis Fischer, ed., ''The Essential Gandhi: His Life, Work, and Ideas: An Anthology'' (Vintage Books, 1962), p. 121.</ref>

	Gandhi was equally thorough in his indictment of the sinister materialism of both capitalism and communism. “Gandhi was the first thinker to see clearly what was common to European capitalism and Communist Russia,” observed Dr. Raghavan Iyer, a political scientist at the University of California, Santa Barbara. “He easily extended his attack on modern civilization, the gospel of material progress, and the glorification of violence, to cover Soviet civilization as well as the capitalist countries.”		Gandhi was equally thorough in his indictment of the sinister materialism of both capitalism and communism. “Gandhi was the first thinker to see clearly what was common to European capitalism and Communist Russia,” observed Dr. Raghavan Iyer, a political scientist at the University of California, Santa Barbara. “He easily extended his attack on modern civilization, the gospel of material progress, and the glorification of violence, to cover Soviet civilization as well as the capitalist countries.”<ref>Raghavan N. Iyer, ''The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi'' (Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 34.</ref>

	However, on close examination, it is apparent that Gandhi was not opposed to machines, technology, wealth, or any other single component of “civilization.” Or even all of these factors taken together. What he opposed, as Dr. Iyer points out, was “ruthless mechanization, the Midas-complex and power-mania.” Gandhi feared India would become seduced by transplanted economic exploitation, or worse, debilitating material comforts. He wrote in ''Hind Swaraj'':		However, on close examination, it is apparent that Gandhi was not opposed to machines, technology, wealth, or any other single component of “civilization,” or even all of these factors taken together. What he opposed, as Dr. Iyer points out, was “ruthless mechanization, the Midas-complex and power-mania.”<ref>Ibid., p. 36.</ref> Gandhi feared India would become seduced by transplanted economic exploitation, or worse, debilitating material comforts. He wrote in ''Hind Swaraj'':

	<blockquote>It would be folly to assume that an Indian Rockefeller would be better than the American Rockefeller. Impoverished India can become free, but it will be hard for any India made rich through immorality to regain its freedom.</blockquote>		<blockquote>It would be folly to assume that an Indian Rockefeller would be better than the American Rockefeller. Impoverished India can become free, but it will be hard for any India made rich through immorality to regain its freedom.<ref>Mahatma Gandhi, ''Hind Swaraj'' (Delhi: Rajpal & Sons, 2010), p. 76.</ref></blockquote>

	He would have to find new rules and discover a new social order to prevent India from “being ground down, not under the English heel, but under that of modern civilization” which was causing India to turn “away from God.” In both the capitalist and communist worlds, power and wealth—and hence the tendency to exploit—gravitated to the top and concentrated in a few hands in urban centers.		He would have to find new rules and discover a new social order to prevent India from “being ground down, not under the English heel, but under that of modern civilization” which was causing India to turn “away from God.”<ref>Iibid., p. 33.</ref> In both the capitalist and communist worlds, power and wealth—and hence the tendency to exploit—gravitated to the top and concentrated in a few hands in urban centers.

	Gandhi’s solution was an obvious one. Turn the whole structure on its head. “Independence must begin at the bottom,” he declared. He would start with the individual as the hub of the village and the village as the hub of society, and build from there.		Gandhi’s solution was an obvious one. Turn the whole structure on its head. “Independence must begin at the bottom,”<ref>Mahatma Gandhi, ''India of My Dreams'' (Delhi: Rajpal & Sons, 2008), p. 99.</ref> he declared. He would start with the individual as the hub of the village and the village as the hub of society, and build from there.

	The spinning wheel permeated one of his few sketches of the future “Gandhian” society in which he described a highly decentralized government of limited powers, where “every village will be a republic or ''panchayat'' having full powers.”		The spinning wheel permeated one of his few sketches of the future “Gandhian” society in which he described a highly decentralized government of limited powers, where “every village will be a republic or ''panchayat'' having full powers.”<ref>Ibid.</ref>

	[[File:Gandhi spinning.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi with his spinning wheel (late 1940s)]]		[[File:Gandhi spinning.jpg\|thumb\|Gandhi with his spinning wheel (late 1940s)]]
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	<blockquote>It follows, therefore, that every village has to be self-sustained and capable of managing its affairs even to the extent of defending itself against the whole world. It will be trained and prepared to perish in the attempt to defend itself against any onslaught from without. Thus, ultimately, it is the individual who is the unit....</blockquote>		<blockquote>It follows, therefore, that every village has to be self-sustained and capable of managing its affairs even to the extent of defending itself against the whole world. It will be trained and prepared to perish in the attempt to defend itself against any onslaught from without. Thus, ultimately, it is the individual who is the unit....</blockquote>

	<blockquote>In this structure composed of innumerable villages, there will be ever-widening, never-ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral units.</blockquote>		<blockquote>In this structure composed of innumerable villages, there will be ever-widening, never-ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral units.<ref>Ibid., pp. 99–100.</ref></blockquote>

	Some rejected the metaphysical nature of his scheme. Gandhi anticipated his critics: “I may be taunted,” he wrote, “that this is all Utopian and, therefore, not worth a single thought.”		Some rejected the metaphysical nature of his scheme. Gandhi anticipated his critics: “I may be taunted,” he wrote, “that this is all Utopian and, therefore, not worth a single thought.”<ref>Ibid., p. 100.</ref>

	But he believed that it was necessary for the goal of the political order to be lofty, even unreachable, for progress to occur, and countered, “If Euclid’s point, though incapable of being drawn by human agency, has an imperishable value, my picture has its own for mankind to live.”		But he believed that it was necessary for the goal of the political order to be lofty, even unreachable, for progress to occur, and countered, “If Euclid’s point, though incapable of being drawn by human agency, has an imperishable value, my picture has its own for mankind to live.”<ref>Ibid.</ref>

	But if the goal is unreachable in the short run, it lays out a framework for developing nations that when adhered to will enfranchise the people, yield political stability, and produce long-term economic growth without forcing the government to seek outside aid from East or West. In short, with this plan a nation can retain control of its own destiny.		But if the goal is unreachable in the short run, it lays out a framework for developing nations that when adhered to will enfranchise the people, yield political stability, and produce long-term economic growth without forcing the government to seek outside aid from East or West. In short, with this plan a nation can retain control of its own destiny.